History Of Materials In The Aviation Industry Engineering Essay

History Of Materials In The breeze Industry Engineering EssayAircraft literals pose faced an overwhelming chassis of change since the takeoff of the first formed aircraft to the skies. This has seen aircraft functioners changing the design materials from that wood and fibre in the early days to entangled materials and atomic number 13 alloys in novel days aircrafts. Composite materials and atomic number 13 alloys were introduced in the diligence rapidly. Due to growth in technology the use of wood in manufacturing aircraft structures is now history. This review covers the use of heterogeneous materials and aluminium alloys in the design of modern aircrafts, both civil and military. It also comp atomic number 18s the usage of these dickens materials in aircraft structures.Table of ContentsINTRODUCTIONAircraft materials project faced an overwhelming stage of change since the takeoff of the first designed aircraft to the skies. This has seen aircraft designers changin g the materials of design from further wood and fibre in the early days to mixed materials and aluminium alloys in modern days aircrafts. Early aircrafts were constructed in general of wood and fabric, the Wright billhook (1903) is an example. Manufacturers preferred relatively light and strong wood such as spruce and fabrics, which were normally linen or something similarly close-weaved. These materials were selected looking at different characteristics which hold among otherwise the weight, violence, cost and availability of the material. Due to advancement in technology the use of wood in manufacturing aircraft structures is now a thing of the past.The use of metals in aircraft structures had to await modern material using processes such as alloy ontogenesis. This processes produced stronger and intermit materials which allowed extravagantly speed flight. Materials produced were better as they allowed heavy loads and they showed better resistance to stress corrosion c racking. The introduction of computers has been of massive input in the field of aerospace. These seen engineers perform involved analysis of strain stress and fatigue on peeled materials in the lead there are introduced in aircraft structures. And as a result, the number of aircraft accidents minify drastically. This review aims to cover the use of multiform materials and aluminium alloys in the design of both civil and military modern aircrafts, and compare the usage of the ii materials in aircraft structures.COMPOSITE MATERIALSComposites consent been the most important materials to have been introduced in the gentle wind sector since the use of aluminium in the early years. Wright et al (2003) defines complex materials as, a combination of linear elements of one material in a matrix of one another material. This implies that composites are engineered materials made from two or more ingredients with signifi back endtly differing properties, either physical or chemic. The lotion of composite date back in the 1940s to the F-15 (US Air Force) fighters, which utilize boron/epoxy empennages. Initially the percentage by weight of composite materials utilise was 2%.Since then, the use of composites has rapidly accelerated. In 1981, the British aerospace- McDonnell Douglas AV-8B harasser flew with over 25% of its structures made of composite materials (Schmitt, 2008). This shows that composite materials were introduced at a very high rate in the line industry.Though composites have been introduced in aviation with such a uncivilised rate, it was proved they are overpriced to produce. They are also hard to inspect for flaws and some tardily absorb moisture. Despite the above mentioned disadvantages, composites nevertheless play a major(ip) role in modern day aircrafts. This is so because of their greater strength and lighter weights. Callus (2007) claims that regardless of the disadvantages of composites, they were introduced because they allowed a quantum leap in aircraft performance. execution of instrument is in the form of light weight, ability, useful payload and super high speeds.USES OF COMPOSITES IN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURESSince each aircraft is unique, it is impossible to generalise where various materials are beingness use in current aircrafts, but reference to a particular example illustrates the trend. bit 1 below shows composite materials used in Boeing 787.http//people.bath.ac.uk/ck258/new%20materials%20documents/Composite%20materials_files/image002.jpgFigure 1. Composite materials used in Boeing 787 structures. competent fromhttp//people.bath.ac.uk/ck258/new%20materials%20documents/Composite%20materials.htmThe above figure derively gives a assailable recitation of the introduction of composites in aircraft structures. It can be confidently give tongue to that composites form ab issue 50% of the weight of the materials used in modern day aircrafts. This can be seen from the pie chart in figure 1. The usually used composites are fibreglass, light speed laminate composites and blow sandwich composite. Some composites include the Titanium and polymer matrix composites.COMPOSITION OF COMPOSITESComposite materials are made of two materials, one acting as the matrix and the other as the funding material. These constituent materials determine the mechanical properties of the composite. The matrix has a lower density, validity and strength than the reinforcement material, and as a result the reinforcement of the matrix, to go out the majority of the strength and stiffness of a composite is accomplished by the fibres. They can be metallic, organic, synthetic or mineral. American Composite Manufacturers standoff (2004) considers epoxy resins as one of the well known matrix material to have been used in a wide range of composite parts and structures. It further states that a major advantage of using epoxy resins over other matrix materials is their lower shrinkage.http//navyaviation.tpub. com/14018/img/14018_593_1.jpgFigure 2. Aircraft advanced composite application usage. neutered from http//navyaviation.tpub.com/14018/css/14018_593.htmThe table shows that the in early aircrafts composites were introduced in little quantities. This is the case with the F-14 aircraft which was first introduced in September 1974 (Hickman, 2012). Comparing the percentage of composite materials of the F-14 with the F/A-18, which was introduced in January 1983, one can notice that the F/A-18 contained a higher percentage of composites which is 20% as compared to the 0.04% of the F-14. This 19.96% difference may have been due to the introduction of modern material development processes.The mostly used reinforcement fibres are glass fibre, one C pitch based, Boron chemical vapour deposition (CVD) fibres, Alumina, Aramid, Carbon Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and Polyethylene. Baker, Dutton and Kelly (2004, pp. 57) claim glass fibres are used mostly in airframes of gliders and in secondary st ructures such as fairings. The deuce-ace further explain that this is the case because this is where their low specialized stiffness is not a problem in the design process, and because of their low cost as compared to high performance fibres. Such high performance composites include carbon fibre reinforced carbon. This is a composite material made from carbon fibre reinforcement in a carbon matrix.Diagram of carbon-reinforced carbonFigure 3. Material properties of a carbon fibre reinforced carbon. alter from http//www.materialsviews.com/understanding-carbon-reinforced-carbonAccording to Grolms (2011), carbon fibre reinforced carbon is used chief(prenominal)ly in high performance and high cost applications in aerospace technology. He further explains that this composite material is used widely in nest cones, wing leading edges in space shuttles and in aircraft brake systems. atomic number 13 ALLOYSAluminium has been the main structural element since 1930. This was made possible by its lightness as compared to other metals which are referred to as heavy, steel for example. Also, aluminium has been selected because of its indomitable strength to weight ratio. Although aluminium is not the strongest of the pure materials, its alloys use other elements to bridge the gap and improve its strength. Starke and Staley (1995) claims that aluminium is still selected as a structural material for the fuselage, wings and supporting structure for commercialized airliners because of its well known performance characteristics, known fabrication costs, design last and established manufacturing methods and practices. The duo continue on saying low specific gravity of aluminium leads to high specific properties giving aluminium alloys an upper berth hand in weight critical applications.Weight and strengthFigure 4. Weight and Strength- aluminium is approximately one third as arduous as steel. Aluminium alloys have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa. competent fro m http//www.powerofaluminium.com/page.asp?node=45sec=Properties .Aluminium alloys were mainly created to tackle the weight problems of aircraft structures, but due to modern research and studies they have been recently studied for use in liquid oxygen and hydrogen fuel tanks, application which Starke and Staley (1995,pp.167) referred to as cryogenic. The development of aluminium-lithium alloy replaced the conventional airframe alloys. Its lower density property was thought to trim back the weight and accelerate the performance of aircrafts. This development, lead to the introduction of commercial alloys 8090, 2090 and 2091 in the mid eighties (Davis, 1993). Weldalite 049 and CP276 were introduced shortly thereafter. Davis (1993) further says that aluminium alloys have a superior fatigue crack propagation resistance as compared to other alloys. This is due to high levels of crack tip shielding, meandering crack cartroad and the resultant roughness induced crack closure (Davis, 1993 ).ANALYSIS AND simile OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS AND COMPOSITES USES IN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURESThe future of aluminium alloys in the aerospace industry seems brighter than that of its competitors, the composite materials. Even though the use composite materials is continuously growing, it recently became clear that aluminium alloys will in the near future be the winners of the fierce competition between the two materials. The airbus A380 give a clear indication of this. It shows that 61% of its structure is composed of aluminium alloys, 22% being composites, 10% is titanium and steel, and 3% of the structure is made of fibre metal laminates (Key to Metal, 2012).http//ars.els-cdn.com/ inwardness/image/1-s2.0-S1359645403005020-gr10.jpgFigure 5 Material distribution for Airbus A380 by percentage, Adapted from http//www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359645403005020It appears the rivalry between composites materials and aluminium alloys in the manufacturing of aircraft structures will co ntinue to exist even in the future. This notify claims aluminium alloys have the upper hand due to the fact that aluminium is less expensive as compared to composites, and cycle aluminium is not that difficult as compared to recycling composites, meaning that aluminium alloys are more environmental friendly. To support this claim, Arval (2010) pointed out that Bombardier has chosen Airware, a new aluminium alloy, for its upcoming CSeries, and Airbus has also shown that new aluminium alloys may be feasible for its next aisle aircraft. deductionIn this chronicle, the use of composite materials in aircrafts has been thoroughly discussed, pointing out their advantages and their disadvantages. The treat identifies the main disadvantage of using composites in aircrafts being its high cost. The other disadvantage of using composite mentioned is their repair problems. It has been proved that composite can give a headache when it comes to repairing from ground molests, which usually ava il themselves during baggage loading and other ground accidents. Nevertheless, the report also states that composites are still playing a major role in the aviation industry. This is due to their remarkable strength and their lighter weight.Also outlined in the report is the use of aluminium alloys in modern day aircrafts. Indicated in the report is that, even though aluminium alloys are not currently the main material for aircraft structure, they are awaited by a bright future. spick-and-span aluminium alloys have been opted over composites for new aircraft technologies because they are recyclable, less expensive, and their characteristics and damage tolerance are well known. The development of new aviation materials since the 1980s was a major achievement in the industry since the number of aviation accidents reduced significantly. Carrying out more research on new aviation materials can see aircraft accidents reducing to probably zero, and this is a call for researchers to dist ill more on new aviation materials.

Upgrading Existing Land Rover Defenders Powertrain

Upgrading Existing add R all over defenders Power chinkUpgrade the quick dirt Rover defenders proponenttrainIntroductionThe public figure teams project aimTo name a program and tonic locomotive shape to upgrade the existent Land Rover withstanders bureautrainThe following(a) report discusses weaknesses of the circulating(prenominal) LR protector along with a subsequent review of mod locomotive technologies. Finally the design targets for the juvenile proposed locomotive educateway locomotive be de gracefuld with all necessary parameters reckon and justified. The design team commit in any case considered the cost, manufacturability and marketing affects of the tender locomotive locomotive as well as the performance requirements.BenchmarkingThe legitimate LR guardian locomotive locomotive give be critically analysed in-relation to the fomites of import competitors in the market place. This get out vacate the weaknesses of the electric flow l ocomotive model to be determined and and then rectified for the new specificationification locomotive railway locomotive.The locomotive railway locomotive throughout the following part leave aloneing be critically analysed in the following main aras upper berthup quicken performanceEngine power effectiveness (MEP and power density)Emissions of unhealthful fluides and particu recentsFuel economyThe emf customer perception of vehicles railway locomotive and early(a) performance criterion (including value for money).The following competitor vehicles were researched and comp ard to the current LR withstander to establish baseline requirements for the new spec locomotive enginelandrover wrangler Unlimited (regarded as the main competitor)Mercedes-Benz G-Class G550Nissan patrol GRToyota Land Cruiser 3.0 DFor a table of the above vehicles full specifications, benchmarked with the existing LR defender, refer to shape.4.7 in Appendix.1.Analysis DiscussionBy reviewing the benchmarking table, Fig.4.7 in Appendix.1, it becomes app arnt that the current LR withstander is slower than its competitors by taking 14.7 seconds to reach 0 62 miles per hour comp bed with the Jeep wranglers measure of 11.7 seconds. Although the LR Defender is non expected to develop a rattling fast acceleration time, as it is an off-utility vehicle, capableness customers whitethorn be discouraged by the Defenders slow acceleration characteristics compared to the Jeep and its otherwise competitors.The fast-breaking acceleration time is achieved by the Mercedes-Benz G550 which heap go 0 62 miles per hour in an impressive 6.1 seconds with its supercharged 5L V8 petrol engine. The cost of the Mercedes-Benz G550 unless(prenominal) is 50,250 (compared to 27,610 for the Defender) and has twice the engine strength of the Defender, so is expected to be furthest to a greater extent than powerful with its petrol engine compared to the 2.4L turbocharged diesel motor Defe nder engine.The design teams proposal is that the current LR Defender engine should at least deucesome or beat its rival the Jeep Wrangler in areas such as acceleration time from 0-62 mph as the Defender is more expensive than the Jeep and approximately 230kg lighter.Another issue is that the Defenders top speed is the final out of all its competitors. This low top speed has to a fault attracted criticism from motoring diary keeper Jeremy Clarkson (2006) who utter that the declamatorygest drawback of the LR Defender is its weak engine and so corresponding slow acceleration and top speed. The new LR Defender engine must eliminate these equal criticisms to become more emulous in the market place and frankincense more appealing to electric potency customers.VehiclePower per cylinder (kW/cylinder)Power parsimoniousness Ratio (kW/L)LR Defender 2.4L D 4inl22.5037.48Jeep Wrangler 2.8L D 4inl32.5046.81Mercedes Benz G550 5.5L V8 petrol47.7570.23Nissan Patrol GR 3.0 D 4inl29.5039. 96Toyota Land Cruiser 3.0D 4inl30.7541.25Fig.1.0 compares the effectiveness of the engines that were benchmarked in detail. It shows that the Defenders current engine has the lowest power density in terms of engine capacity. This is a big weakness as it shows that the when not taking into account the Defenders relatively minor engine capacity, its engine is vastly underpowered. The Mercedes Benz G550 as expected displays the outmatch power density as it is a gasoline engine. The Defenders regarded nearlyst rival in terms of target market and image, the Jeep Wrangler, overly shows a such(prenominal) great power density ratio.Or stem propose to cast up the engines the power density to be comparable with the Jeep Wrangler with at least a ratio of above 43kW/L.VehicleTorque (Nm)MEP (Mpa)LR Defender 2.4L D 4inl3601.885Jeep Wrangler 2.8L D 4inl4001.815Mercedes Benz G-Class G550 5.5L V8 petrol3910.903Nissan Patrol GR 3.0 D 4inl3801.619Toyota Land Cruiser 3.0D 4inl4101.729A weakness of the current Defender however is graduate(prenominal)lighted test drive of the vehicle by motor journalist Jeremy Clarkson (2006) for the Times Newspaper. He stated that the vehicle simply did not be move over enough contortion to pull a horse trailer after part it at a reasonable speed. This can be backed up by the data seen in Fig.1.1 above which shows that the current Defender engine produces the least nub of tortuousness out of all its competitors. This weakness is heavily compounded by the fact that the vehicle is marketed as an off-road vehicle and olibanum needs high torque requirements to be-able to navigate through occupy and loosen terrain effectively. As a consequence customers may be off come out by the fact that the current Defender has less torque than its competitors and thence this issue exit hold in to be addressed when upgrading the existing engine.The new engine must be made more environmentally couthie than the current engine as January 2013 wil l see the current Euro 5 electric discharges targets replaced by the Euro 6 canon and thus stricter emissions targets. The Defender is third best out the five competitors the vehicle was benchmarked against in regards to CO2 emissions, which is an indicator for boilers suit total emission performance.The current Defender comes second best to the Jeep Wrangler in regards to arouse economy, by achieving a combined furnish economy of 28.3 mpg. However the other diesel engine competitors, the Nissan Patrol and Toyota Land Cruiser are less supply cost-effective than the Defender.When purchasing an off-road vehicle such as the Defender, evoke economy may not be the most Copernican factor however it has become more important to potential customers over the last decade. The aforementioned(prenominal) could be said for the greater importance of emissions performance that potential customers may look for. The new Defender engine is likely to be more powerful and thus a fall in b urn down economy target (comparable to 32.8mpg of the Jeep Wrangler) may be out of reach. However through reviewing and selecting technologies, the fuel economy performance could be improved slightly or at least kept the same.From analysing the Defender, by victimisation the data displayed in Fig.4.7 (Appendix.1), it can be seen that the vehicle is neither the best nor rack up performing vehicle in regards to fuel economy, but averagely in relationship to competitors.The balance of the current Defenders inline four engine configuration, gibe to Nunney (2006), has perfect primary balance because when one equate of pistons are piteous up, the other p circularise are moving d experience at the same time. Inline four engines however do not have perfect alternate dynamic balance. This is because piston acceleration varies depending on its vertical position at heart the cylinder head in relation to the crankshaft that it is connected to. This leads to one p demarcation of pistons m oving faster than the other, which creates a secondary imbalance and results in the engine vibrating vertically. Nunney (2006) in any case explains that at low power configurations the secondary imbalance (vibration) is not too severe but can get considerably worse with change magnitude size and powerful engines. This may explain why the current inline 4 Defender engine has a lower displacement than its competitors, to issue secondary imbalance vibration in society to appeal to potential customers and save costs on designing a crankshaft to damp severe engine vibration.The following strengths are withal exhibited by the current engineHighest MEP value out of the competitors benchmarked againstBest strength to weight ratio (could be due to basic interior making vehicle lighter)Potential customers may overlook the apparent power and torque shortfalls as the highly regarded Land Rover brand may persuade people to buy the vehicle anyway.Summary of existing Defender engine (compare d to competitors)WeaknessesStrengthsSlowest acceleration from 0 62 MphBest Mean Effective Pressure of 1.885Mpa, better than competitor vehiclesLowest top speed of only 82 mphHighest Power to weight ratio (kW/kg)More expensive than Jeep Wrangler by 4000 even with poorer speed performance.Fuel economy is not the switchLowest Power per cylinder produced (kW/cyl)Emission of CO2 is not the worstSecondary imbalance of straight inline four engine configuration (rivals also have this weakness)Long history of Defender may appeal to potential customers, thus engine shortcomings may be overlookedLowest torque produced out of competitorsNot the best in either fuel wasting disease or emissions, even with infinitesimalest capacity engineLowest Power Density Ratio (kW/L)Current Vehicle Performance TrendsFig 1.3 shows the performance trends for mountain lion engines up to 2010. While exact performance targets cannot be tautologicpolated from the graph, The design sort can see that the new Def ender engine needs to have an augment in specific engine power. However with the increase in power, increased emissions and fuel inspiration will occur. This in union with Fig 1.4 at a lower place from Richardson (2010) shows how CO2 emissions have decreased despite the trend of engine power also increase.While the trends from Figs 1.3 and 1.4 show that performance trends increase and emissions trends decrease, the group is concluding that potential customers for a LR Defender will be less likely concerned about the vehicles emissions or fuel economy compared to non-SUV vehicles customers. thereof increasing the torque (and power) of the current engine to match its competitors is prioritised. It is conceded that any onward motion in fuel economy and emissions departments will be limited, but in the interests of Land Rovers image, any improvement on these characteristics will be beneficial. go Engine TechnologySupercharging Turbo-charging TechnologySuperchargers (mechanical dr ive driven)This is a device comprising of an air compressor to force more air into the engine. Forcing a greater amount of air (under positive closet) into the engine provides more oxygen for the flame process than without a supercharger. As a result more fuel can be thus provided for stoichiometric combustion reaction to occur and allowing more contrive per a cycle to be done. This thus increases the power output of the engine.The improvement of supercharging according to Daniels (2001) is that it multiplies the engines BMEP and torque by the amount the air compressor increases the atmospheric pressure into the engine. Supercharged engines also experience better throttle response than by temperament aspirated engines.The disadvantage of using a supercharger is that it is generally less thermally high-octane than the more commonality used turbocharger (which uses energy from otherwise wasted squirt gas). Another drawback highlighted by Harris (2002) is that supercharging (p articularly mechanical-supercharging techniques) puts extra strain on the engine and its components as they are required to withstand extra strains provided by the supercharging ascending. This requires the engine to be made stronger, thus thicker, heavier and more expensive. Daniels (2001) also explains how the noise generated by a superchargers mechanical drive components can contribute to extra passenger discomfort.TurbochargersThese devices rest of a turbine and a compressor and are a graphic symbol of supercharger. The difference is that sort of of mechanically driving a compressor to force more air into the engine, turbochargers uses the engines own run through gases (which would have been otherwise wasted). It does this by converting the ki authoriseic energy from glance over gases into rotational energy to turn a turbine. The turbine is connected to the compressor on the same shaft, thus this powers the compressor to draw in atmospheric air and pump it pressurised into the engine.The advantages of a turbocharger are same as for a supercharger as antecedently expound of increasing engine BMEP. This is appropriate for the LR Defender which will need the extra power if being used off-road or in rough steep roads, which is the market the vehicle is targeted to. Turbochargers are also more thermally efficient than superchargers due to use of the otherwise wasted thump gas. This thus decreases fatigue emissions and fumes expelled into the atmosphere. Daniels (2001) also explains that for mainly diesel engines variant geometry turbochargers can asseverate an appropriate exhaust gas speed though the turbo turbine when the engine is at low load.Disadvantages include the need for a cooler to cool exhaust gas before it enters the turbine therefore adding weight and bulk to the engine. During operation turbochargers also experience a turbo lag when the throttle is applied.As previously explained the LR Defenders competitors (particularly its main rival the Jeep Wrangler) have more powerful engines than the current Defender 2.4litre 4 cylinder engine. If upgrading the engine by increasing its cylinder capacity, more air (particularly oxygen) will need to be supplied to the cylinders for combustion. Thus the use of twin-turbochargers may be required to force more air into the cylinders to make the combustion process stoichiometric. also the advantage of using twain smaller turbochargers (twin-turbo), rather of a big single turbocharger, is that turbo-lag is reduced. Usually a small turbocharger provides boost at low engine speeds and the second kicks in and supplies boost at higher engine speeds. There are two widely cognise fibres of twin-turbochargers called Parallel and Sequential types.When comparing the advantages and disadvantages of mechanically-driven superchargers and turbochargers it was decided to use turbochargers as they are more environmentally friendly and fuel efficient to run. The current engine for the LR De fender uses a inconsistent geometry turbocharger and it is likely the new spec engine will also be turbocharged by the same type of unit. variable Valve Timing SystemsCamless Valve SystemsAutoweek Magazine (2005) states that camless valve schemes were tested in 2005 by Valeo on two Peugeot 407s successfully under extreme weather conditions and intensive testing. The valves were maneuverled by psyche actuators and powered through solenoids to open and close valves.The advantages of camless systems, explained by Daniels (2001), include the followingValve clock can be altered to as desiredIn theory some cylinders could be shut off (at low load) to allow others to run more efficientlyValve time and nip and tuck can be matched to the needs of the engine with an estimated providence of up to 20% on fuel saving.The mechanical design of the engine can be simplified as the usage of a camshaft and other associated valve gear become redundant.The advantages however are currently oversha dowed by the power needs of the camless system and the associated complexity and reliableness issues if the vehicle has electrical problems. Peter Brown who is vice president of powertrain technology and design for Ricardo stated in Autoweek Magazine (2005) It comes down to complexity and cost which sums up why camless systems are still not (although many mean they eventually will be) utilised in passenger vehicle engines. For The new LR Defender engine camless systems will not be used for the disadvantages expound above. inconstant Valve Timing TechnologyMechadyne International (2006) states that that the use of variable valve train systems can substantially reduce both fuel inhalation and exhaust emissions. The amount by which the variable valve train systems reduce fuel inhalation and emissions is going to be approximated to 10%. This is because, as the Bosch Automotive Handbook (2007) states, BMWs VALVETRONIC system reduces fuel consumption and exhaust emissions by over 12% . fit in to the Bosch Automotive Handbook (2007) the following types of variable valve clock technology are availableCamshaft phase adjustmentCamshaft-lobe instructionFully variable valve timing with camshaftFully variable valve timing without camshaftCamshaft Phase AdjustmentThis type of variable valve timing adjusts the phase that the cams are in contact with the levers that open and close the valves. To change the phase of the camshaft small adjustments are made, by electrically controlled actuators, to the camshaft as a function of engine speed. Typically the camshaft can only be controlled to move to two pre-mensurable extreme positions.Advantages include greater power, torque and capability being experienced for a wider range of engine speeds. Disadvantages to other valve timing methods include the limited range in which the valves timings can actually be altered.Fully Variable Valve Timing with CamshaftThese types of systems can vary both valve muster up and timing. The lo bes on the camshaft have a curved profile which in conjunction with the camshaft being able to move freely laterally, this enables the valve lift and timing to also be varied independent to each other, which is an obvious advantage to the previously limited valve control systems mentioned above.Fully Variable Valve Timing without CamshaftThese types of systems are very different, to the previously mentioned, as it replaces the use of a camshaft with either the following types of control methods solenoid (electromagnetic) or electro-hydraulic actuators.The biggest advantage of these systems are that operate independently from the crankshaft and thus this allows the valves to be opened at any time period of the engines cycle. This, as stated by the Bosch Automotive Handbook (2007), offers the greatest degree of freedom for valve timing and thus the greatest potential for reducing fuel consumption. Also defusing of certain cylinders can be achieved thus allowing the active cylinders t o work more efficiently at lower engine speeds. Disadvantages are however that superchargers cannot be installed (without very expensive and complicated design), and firearm space is saved from not using a camshaft, electrical components can be bulky and hazardous. Also the cost of fully variable valve timing systems means it is unlikely they will be incorporated into The new engine design.Camshaft-Lobe delayIn these types of systems it becomes executable for a valves timing to be controlled by three separate camshaft lobes depending on the engine speed. According to the Bosch Automotive Handbook (2007) the one lobes profile is well-kept so that valve timing and lift is optimised for the lower to mid engine speed range. Another lobes profile is optimised for higher engine speeds by maximising valve lift and opening times. Systems such as Hondas VTEC and Toyotas WTI use camshaft-lobe control method. Camshaft-lobe shifting types of variable valve timing also share similar advantag es and disadvantages to the camshaft phase adjustment method.This type of variable timing (camshaft-lobe control) will be used for the new engine design. This is because it doesnt cost as much (or weigh as much) as the other variable valve timing systems while still being hugely discriminatory in terms of performance, fuel economy and emissions control gain.Fuel dig SystemsCommon Rail Fuel InjectionThese fuel systems consist of a common rail tubing system defended at ceaseless high pressure via a pump. Injectors for each cylinder in the engine are in turn connected to the common rail tubing. The injectors have solenoid valves which are electronically controlled via an engine ECU (Electronic Control Unit) to open and close at the desired timings as explained in detail by DENSO (2005).An advantage of common rail fuel guess is that control of fuel jibe (according to Daniels, 2001) is at the injector itself and not at the pump which is the case with other fuel slam systems. Highe r pressures can also be achieved thus more fuel can be injected into the cylinder in a shorter amount of time with better fuel atomisation, as described by DENSO (2005), leading to high combustion efficiency and a reduction in emissions. This is important as new emissions targets will have to be met in 2014 with the Euro 6 legislation when the vehicle will be on the market.The main disadvantage of this type of injection technology according to Daniels (2001) is that the injectors are expensive to manufacture and inherently complicated in design.Piezoelectric Injectors (For Common Rail Systems)Instead of using solenoid valves which are more frequently used in common rail fuel injection system, piezoelectric injectors can be used in higher performance engines. These injectors work by using piezoelectric crystals that extend when supplied with an electrical charge and thus opening and closing fuel injection valves. The following attributes of piezoelectric type injectors are commonGre ater urge dimensions than solenoid valve injectors.More accurate control over injection timing and fuel volume.Piezoelectric injectors can be used with Accelerometer wing Control (APC) to minimise diesel engine vibration at low engine speeds. This is achieved by injecting a small quantity of fuel before the main injection quantity.Piezoelectric injectors can also operate faster with more frequency than solenoid valves (approximately five times faster), which allows greater control over fuel consumption and emissions.The Bosch Automotive Handbook (2007) states that the use of piezo-injectors for common rail fuel systems can reduce emissions by up to 20%.Emissions Reduction TechnologiesStanton (2009) from roadtransport.com explains how the European fantan (EP) and European Commission (EC) have agreed new targets for comply with Euro-6 emission legislation. The new Euro-6 targets will have to be met by vehicle manufacturers and thus the new spec LR Defender by 1st January 2013. This is before the new LR Defender model will reach Job 1 (mid to late 2013). It is therefore important that new and existing technologies are reviewed in Emissions control to meet these targets. In recent years the environmental performance of vehicles influences potential customers more than ever in their buying decision. It is therefore important we maintain Jaguars highly regarded brand image and compete with competitors by meeting the existing (Euro-5) and future Euro-6 emissions targets.Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF)This is a device which is responsible for removing small particulate particles and soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine. A DPF is not 100% but is normally found to be over 50% efficient most of the time. A good feature of a DPF is that its function according to torquecars.com (2008) is independent to a catalytic converter thus ensuring a fault in the DPF will not affect overall emissions critically.The advantages of particulate filters are much publicised in cluding removing dangerous small particles from an engines emissions. The two types of DPF, active and passive, have their own advantages and disadvantages.The main disadvantages of DPF, explained by torquecars.com (2008), are highlighted belowThe filters can get very hot causing a mathematical fire safety hazard.To remove a DPF very technical changes have to be made to the affected ECUs to change the sensitivity of sensors in the vehicles engine and exhaust.A DPF can decrease engine performance by at most 10% Bhp.Other TechnologiesAccelerometer Pilot Control (APC)Diesel engines are known to display harsh chugging and vibration at low engine speed, which can now be minimised through technology called Accelerometer Pilot Control (APC). An APC system, described by Delphi (2008) consists of an accelerometer (microphone) attached to the engine block which listens to the nature of the combustion which may have caused vibrations occur throughout the engine block. An engine management sys tem then minimises the unwanted vibrations and noise by optimising the amount of fuel pilot injected for combustion, in a closed loop system, until bankable noise and vibration levels are reached.ECU RemappingAccording to mobilechiptune.com (2007), when we remap an engine ECU we are fine tuning the program that deals with engine performance. Remapping or upgrading an ECU could therefore potentially increase the available engine power and torque. Mobilechiptune.com (2007) also states that remapping a diesel turbo engine ECU will produce 30 50% BHP on exact the specification, where diesel engines give the most impressive power and torque gains available. A remap of the ECU will definitely be required be a twin-turbo (or other technologies) are added to the new engine, however the ECU itself is only likely to achieve small gains in efficiency, fuel economy and emissions.Summary of Chosen TechnologiesFig1.5 below shows the selected technologies the group is proposing for inclusion in to the new Defenders engine. Fig1.5 also shows estimates of the expected improvement over engine performance, emissions and fuel economy. Also see Section.3 for justification to estimates below.FeatureSelected TechnologyTwin-Turbo (reused exhaust gasVariable Valve trainDiesel Particulate FilterPiezo Injectors*Improved ECU useAPCPerformance, BHP+ 20%+ 10% 10%+ 5%+ 2.5%+ 2.5%Emissions, CO2 g/km+ 5% 10% 0% 10% 2.5% 2.5%Fuel Economy, mpg 10%+ 10% 0%+10%+ 2.5%+ 2.5%*Piezo injectors as opposed to solenoid controlled injectors in a common rail fuel injection system.3. Selection of Engine Arrangementslimited engine parametersTotal engine capacity 3000 cc.Capacity per each cylinder 500 cc.Number of cylinders 6Type of engine Diesel engineThe target is to improve engine performance (mainly torque) by increasing the matter of cylinders from 4 to 6. Although there is a reduction of capacity per cylinder, a net increase in total engine capacity of 600 cc will not only compensate it, but also in creases total horsepower produced. Kayne (2009) states that 6 cylinder engines are more suited to towing, off-road, hilly and mountainous areas while experiencing greater throttle response. run down size is thus reduced from 89.9 mm to 82 mm while retaining the same stroke length. Bore/stroke ratio is 1.15, which is within the range of 1-1.3 for diesel engine. The weight of the current engine is estimated as being 180kg taken from a BMW 2.5L inline 4 diesel engine (plus weight added for turbo) from data compiled by Williams (2006), which is a similar spec to the current Defenders 2.4L turbo inline 4. The new engine is estimated as being 25% larger thus heavier by the same margin, and an additional 50kg for the additional technologies added. The new engine weight is thus taken as approximately 300kg.4. Determination of heading TargetsThis section of the report provides estimations for the new engines power, torque, fuel economy and emissions characteristics. Below Fig1.7 Shows modi fications to the Defenders current engine will affect the new engines power performance.Performance esteemFeatureEstimated affect on engines PerformanceBHP (%) affect from current Defenders 121 BHP engineIncreasing engine capacity by 600cc+ 25 %+ 30 BHPUpgrading current Turbocharger to a Twin-turbo charger+ 20 %+ 24 BHPInstalling a Variable valve train system Camshaft Lobe Control+ 10 %+ 12 BHPDecreasing the stupid person from 89.9mm to 82mm 10 % 12 BHPAdding a Diesel Particulate Filter 10 % 12 BHPPiezo-electric injectors (instead of solenoid valves) in common-rail system+ 5%+ 6 BHPMiscellaneous-Accelerometer Pilot Control (APC)-Improved ECU Mapping-Improved intake air flow+ 5 %+ 6 BHPTotal affect in BHP =+ 50 %60 BHP Increase minded(p) the maximum power for previous engine is 121 bhp. Therefore, the new engines maximum power isPower = (121 + 30 + 24 + 12 12 12 + 6 + 6)bhp= 181 bhp= 135kWTorque and Power at 3 operating conditionsT = 368.5 Nm max power (3500rpm)T = 400.0 Nm max torque (2000rpm)T = 120.0 Nm idle (1000rpm)The Torque at various engine speeds were calculated via using the following equationEngine power Pe=2*? *N* TFigure 1.8 shows the estimated power and torque curves for the vehicle.Justification of Targets EstimationsWhile the decision has been taken to increase the engines capacity, increasing the engines power to increase the vehicles acceleration and torque characteristics, the fuel economy and emissions of the engine also has to improve. This is due to more fuddled legislation and targets, as well as the expectations from potential customers who expect the engine to improve in every department.It may be said that that increasing the engines capacity from 2.4L to 3L means that the targets of decreasing the fuel consumption and emissions will be difficult. The group would argue however that the current Defenders engine is underpowered compared to its competitors and was consequently the liquidator of bad reviews from motor journalists (such as Jeremy Clarkson, 2006).The Defenders potential customer market also may not require huge improvements in fuel consumption and emissions. This is because the Defender is going to be utilised for and marketed as an off-field vehicle with specialist applications such as towing and rough terrain excursions. These categories of vehicles are expected by customers to have poorer fuel economy and emissions than other smaller vehicle types. These customer expectations will therefore be beneficial when designing the engine as while emissions and fuel economy is targeted to at least stay the same, the issue of increasing the Defenders torque can be prioritised.The increase in engine capacity naturally means the emissions and fuel consumption will increase. To overcome this advanced engine technology will be utilised in order to decrease the emissions and fuel consumption. Estimations will be made regarding how much saving (in terms of percentage) the addit

Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors In The Pig Urinary Bladder Biology Essay

Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors In The Pig Urinary vesica bio poundy EssayBackground and purpose. This investigation sought to identify the principal muscarinic sensory sense organ subtype associated with contr makeion of the go through vesica. Addition all in ally, comparisons of muscarinic sense organ expression in the sloven bladder and caudate nucleus were conducted.Experimental approach. Contractility of isolated strips of pig bladder was assessed employ isotonic tension recordings in an organ bath. Radioligand grooming to particulate preparations from pig caudate nucleus and bladder detrusor was assessed using 3H-quinuclidinylbenzilate.Key results.The results obtained from the contractile solvent look into showed that the best rivals for pig bladder contractions were methoctramine, pirnezepine and oxybutynin, this was according to the pEC50 information. These results led to the credit of the front line of M1 and M3 receptor subtypes in the bladder. Whereas M1 and M2 receptor subtypes were demonstrate to occur in the humour. Pirenzepine exhibited the smallest Rmax pass judgment, and was and then the most successful obstructionist. Whereas 4-DAMP had the largest Rmax time pry, identifying this as the worst antagonist.Conclusions and Implications.It is clear that M3 muscarinic receptors atomic fleck 18 appoint in the bladder, but ar absent in the brain. This is do to a greater extent certain as 4-DAMP showed more or less low affinity for muscarinic receptors in the bladder, but its affinity was in high spiritser(prenominal)er than that record in the brain which is k presently to contain a low amount of M3 receptors. 4-DAMP also has the highest affinity put down in the brain, collectable to fecundation at the M1 muscarinic receptor.Introductionthither atomic number 18 five distinct types of muscarinic receptors (M1,M2,M3,M4,M5), all of which belong to the corresponding family of G-protein-coupled receptors. M1 receptors a tomic number 18 found mainly in the cortex and hippocampus of the brain, but also on the CNS and peripheral neurons. These receptors atomic number 18 excitatory, this excitation is green goodsd by a strike in potassium ions which causes membrane depolarization.M2 receptors exert inhibitory effects they be present in the heart and so are of little immenseness in this audition.M3 receptors reside in smooth muscle. These receptors are excitatory and produce vasodilatation and bronchodilatation, via an increase in intracellular calcium levels.As this experiment includes depth psychology on the effects of muscarinic antagonists on muscarinic receptors in the brain and bladder, it is mainly the M1 and M3 receptors which are being concentrated on.The aim of the experiment was to add a grip of antagonists pig bladder wander, and consequently recording the effect separately had on the wanders contraction. The five antagonists utilize in the experiment were atropine, pirenzepin e, methoctramine, 4-DAMP and oxybutynin. Each of the antagonists utilize are able to bind to muscarinic receptors, but they bind to different subtypes as they feel differing affinities.Atropine is a non-selective antagonist, which acts via competitive inhibition of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. It is a naturally occurring alkaloid which can be found in solanaceous plants, for example the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna). Atropine causes anti-cholinergic effects such as mydriasis, salivary inhibition, tachycardia, inhibition of GI motility and smooth muscle relaxation. It can be used clinically to treat anticholinesterase poisoning, bradycardia and GI hypermotility.Pirenzepine is a muscarinic receptor antagonist, and is slightly selective for the M1 sub-type. It is used clinically for the pr from separately oneing of peptic ulcers, whereby it inhibits gastric acid secretion.Methoctramine is a slightly M2 selective antagonist. It has also been found to show selectivity for cardiac M2 muscarinic receptors, but to induct low affinity for both(prenominal) vascular M2 and ganglionic M1 receptors.4-DAMP is a slightly M3 selective antagonist, although it has only low affinity. There is no clinical use for 4-DAMP, it is mainly used in experiments for the abridgment of muscarinic receptors.Oxybutynin is a non-selective muscarinic antagonist. It is used clinically to decrease muscle spasms of the bladder in patients suffering from frequent urination or urge incontinence.During the contractile experiment these antagonists will be used to determine which of the muscarinic receptors are present in the bladder, and which occur in the greatest amount. The same antagonists will then be used in the radioligand experiment, to study each of their effects on brain tissue. Once both experiments are performed, the results can be used to compare the movement of muscarinic effects in the bladder and brain tissue.Materials and MethodsContractile chemical reaction studiesStrips of urinary detrusor were stored overnight at 4 C in Krebs mark solution composition (mM) NaCl (118) KCl (4.9), MgCl2 (1.2) KH2PO4 (1.2) D-glucose (12) NaHCO3 (25) CaCl2 (1.3) gassed with O2CO2 (955), as previously described (Lot and Wilson, 1994). On the good morning of the experiment, tissue was removed from the refrigerator and allowed to equilibrate to room temperature. Thereafter, strips were mounted in an organ bath at 37 C in Krebs bell ringer solution. Contractility was monitored using isotonic transducers connected to CED 1502 amplifiers and recorded on a ain computer running Spike 2 software (CED, Cambs, UK).A fast baseline was then achieved for 20 minutes before 1ml 3M KCl was added to 50ml of Krebs solution (in pee bath), to achieve a final engrossment of 60mM. The tissue was then rinse protrude three times once a maximal result was recorded, and this was then left for a further 20 minutes until a steady baseline was achieved once again.10 dilution s containing varying intentnesss of carbachol were then brisk in LP4 tubes, using 3-fold dilutions. A cumulative-concentration curve was created by adding the preparation containing the worst concentration of carbachol to the organ bath first. After waiting for 7 minutes, the future(a) preparation with a higher concentration was added. This process was repeated with erupt slipstream out the tissue, until there was no further increase in tissue tone recorded.Once this part of the experiment was completed, the tissue was washed out 3 times with warm Krebs solution. This was followed by the addition of the putative antagonist and the tissue was left for 60 minutes. After achieving a steady baseline, a cumulative-concentration curve was created by carrying out the same process with change magnitude concentrations of carbachol as before but this time in the presence of the putative antagonist. The results were printed discharge once the process was completed.Radioligand binding st udiesRadioligand binding to total particulate preparations from the pig was conducted essentially as previously described (Alexander et al., 1994). Briefly, tissue was homogenised in 10-30 volumes of 0.1 M phosphate caramel (pH 7.5) using an Ultra-Turrax homogeniser. After centrifugation at 30 000 g for 15 minutes at 4C, the supernatant floor was discarded. This homogenisation/centrifugation cycle was repeated twice more and the resulting pellet was re-suspended in 10 volumes. After storage at -20 C, thawed tissue was incubated in a total volume of 500 L 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.5), containing 0.25 nM 3H-QNB for 30 minutes at 37 C. speedy filtration with repeated washing allowed isolation of bound radioligand, which was then estimated using placid scintillation counting.A dilution curve was prepared using 10-fold dilutions once the drug was provided, this contained the highest concentration. 32 LP4 tubes were labelled 1-32 and these were bottomd in test tube racks. 50 l al iquots of different concentrations of drug were then added to tubes 5-28, with each being do up to 500 l by adding 450 l of buffer.50 l of buffer was added to tubes 1-4, these acted as a control whilst atropine was added to the remained tubes 29-32.400 l of the radioligand was added to each of the tubes, with 50 l of particulate preparation being added to the tubes in groups of 10 at 12 minute intervals. Once this process was completed, the tubes were incubated in a water bath at 37C for 30 minutes.The Whatman GF/B filters were placed in the 10-place manifold and were wet using the buffer solution. ten of the tubes were then removed from the water bath, and 3ml of ice-cold buffer was added to each of them. They were filtered like a shot after this process. Once two additions of 3ml of ice-cold buffer had taken place on each filter paper, they were washed. This was repeated for each of the LP4 tubes, once brooding in the water bath was halted on their removal.The filter papers wer e then placed into labelled scintillation vials, they were then analysed.Data analysis and statistical proceduresThere are equations which can be used to analyse the data salt away in the experiment, once the information has been put into a concentration curve graph. The first equation used is the Gaddum equationpKi = log (CR 1) log AntIn order to make use of this equation it is neccessary to spiel out the EC50, which is the effective concentration of drug required to give 50% of the uttermost response. This EC50 value can be obtained from the concentration curve, as it is at 50% of the maximum response on the graph. The results collected from the graphs were Molar, these can be converted to M by multiplying the determine by 106. These set can now be used to produce a concentration ratio, indicating the EC50 response with and without the presence of the antagonist.Graph 1 shows bladder tissue contractile responses to histamine in the presence of different concentrations of p romethazine. The EC50 values recorded for histamine and promethazine were -6.5 and -5 respectively. By converting these Molar values to M by using the technique stated above, histamine 0.316 M and promethazine 3.16 M can be inputted into the Gaddum equation. The pKi value which is calculated in this equation is an indication of potency of the antagonist used, and a high pKi indicates a high affinity for the receptor. The pKi in this case was -8.5.As the radioligand was being carried out, calculations were made in order to work out the Kd and Bmax. The equation used in the radioligand binding experiment was the Cheng-Prusoff equationIC50/Ki = 1 + A/KdTo work out the pKi, the same process as the contractile response experiment is used. Then the pIC50, the concentration of the antagonist which displaces 50% of the ligand, can be calculated. It is then necessary to work out the IC50 value to be used in the Cheng-Prusoff equation, this is achieved by -log of the pIC50 value. Finally, -lo g of the Ki obtained from the equation gives a pKi value of 8.2.Drugs, chemicals, reagents and other materialsPorcine material (from pigs of the current Hybrid white strain, either sex, approximately 50-70 kg) was obtained from an abattoir and transported rapidly to the testing ground on ice.3H-QNB (specific activity 1591 GBq mmole-1) was obtained from Amersham Pharmacia Biotech (Herts, UK), while muscarinic receptor ligands were all obtained from Sigma (Dorset, UK). All drug and molecular target nomenclature conforms to the British Journal of Pharmacologys Guide to Receptors and transmit (Alexander et al., 2008).ResultsTable 1. Contractile response resultsDrugpEC50RmaxConcentration RatiopKiAtropine4.513120.99.1Pirenzepine4.310942.67.4Methoctramine4.350.27.14-DAMP4.613937.99.2Oxybutynin4.3210.58.1 irrigate4.71165.0Table 1 shows the results obtained from the contractile response experiment, whereby the pig bladder tissue was exposed to five antagonists and the contractility of the tissue was measured.Table 2. Radioligand binding resultsBrainBladderDrugpKiSEMpKiSEMAtropine9.80.19.80.1Pirenzepine7.70.28.00.6Methoctramine8.00.07.70.14-DAMP9.20.08.40.1Oxybutynin7.40.07.80.0Carbachol4.80.14.30.0Table 2 shows the results obtained from the radioligand experiment, which identified the different muscarinic receptors found in the brain and bladder tissue.Discussion and conclusionsThe conclusions that can be made from the results are that the main types of muscarinic receptor involved in the contraction of the bladder are the M1 and M3 receptor. Whereas, M1 and M2 muscarinic receptor subtypes occur in the brain. Therefore, an ideal drug for therapeutic treatment of urge incontinence and bladder dysfunction would be M3 selective. This would not contain whatever indecorous effects in the brain, as M3 receptors are not present in this part of the body.Bladder contractions occur due to activating of muscarinic receptors leading to an increase in intracellular calcium, which causes contraction of the smooth muscle. The results collected in the contractile response experiment were due to antagonism of M1 and M3 receptor subtypes. 4-DAMP recorded a pKi value of 9.2, a value which corresponded with the M3 subtype and was the highest of all the antagonists. This antagonist is M3 selective but also has affinity for the M1 muscarinic receptor this may have caused its high pKi value to be due to binding at this muscarinic receptor subtype.Atropine recorded the second highest pKi, 9.1 .This was to be expected as it is a non-selective antagonist, with high affinity for each of the muscarinic receptor subtypes able to cause contraction of the bladder tissue.Oxybutynin recorded the third highest pKi value, 8.1. Oxybutynin has a slightly higher affinity for the M3 muscarinic receptor, therefore the pKi value is due to binding at this receptor subtype.Pirenzepine, being an M1 selective antagonist, would be expected to have a similarly high pKi to 4-DAMP. This was not the case as pirenzepine only recorded a pKi of 7.4, a value expected to be obtained from M3 selective antagonists.Methoctramine recorded a pKi value of 7.1, the concluding of all the antagonists. Although it is an M2 selective antagonist, the pKi value leads to the conclusion that contractile response is due to the presence of M1 or M3 receptors.The results obtained in the radioligand experiment revealed that mostly M1 and M2 muscarinic receptors occur in the brain. Methoctramine has low affinity at the M1 receptor, even so, the results recorded in the experiment showed the antagonist to have high affinity. The pKi range of the M2 receptor subtype for methoctramine is 7.8-8.3. Therefore, the recorded pKi value of 8.0 suggests the presence of M2 receptor subtypes in the brain. The pKi of 8.0 is quite cold from the pKi range of methoctramine for the M3 receptor subtype, leading to the conclusion that there are a small number of M3 receptors in the brain.Atropine, perenzepine , 4-DAMP and oxybutynin antagonists are able to act at the M1 muscarinic receptor and each of these antagonists possess similar affinities for the receptor. Atropine (pKi 9.8) and oxybutynin (pKi 7.4) are both non-selective antagonists, so as in the contractile response will have fairly high affinities for any of the muscarinic receptor subtypes present in the brain. Perenzepine recorded a pKi value of 7.7 this failed to fall out into any of the pKi ranges expected for the muscarinic receptors. The value was closest to the M1 subtype range (7.8-8.5). The SEM recorded was the highest of all the antagonists (0.2) concluding that some of the results may have been anomalous, with most of the pKi values travel within the M1 range. The Pki range of pirenzepine for the M3 receptor subtype is 6.7-7.1. The pKi recorded, much like that of methoctramine, was quite far from the M3 range.4-DAMP recorded a high pKi of 9.2. This pKi value fell into the ranges for both the M1 and M3 muscarinic re ceptors, wake high affinity of the antagonist for both subtypes. In this experiment the pKi value recorded was with respect to the M1 receptor, not the M3 subtype.The non-selective muscarinic antagonist oxybutynin is the principle drug used to treat urge incontinence. This antagonistic drug possesses anticholinergic and antispasmolytic properties, which together act on the bladder to inhibit micturition. However, there are significant adverse effects associated with this choice of therapeutic treatment such as dry mouth, constipation and blurred vision. These side effects highlight the non-selectivity of oxybutynin as each occurs due to antagonism at the M1 receptor. The radioligand binding experimental results show that oxybutynin has a pKi of 7.8 in the bladder, which is only slightly higher than the pKi of 7.4 recorded in the brain. These pKi values indicate that oxybutynin is slightly more selective towards the M3 receptor subtype present in the bladder. However, it is evident that the antagonist also has significant affinity towards the M1 and M2 receptor subtypes which are present in the brain.There were a few limitations encountered in both parts of the experiment. The contractile response experiment was carried out for a fairly short amount of time, more reliable results could be obtained by increasing the amount of time that the experiment is undertaken. As not all of the tissues used in the experiment were of the same source or size, the results obtained were inconsistent the responses recorded were of varying degrees. By ensuring every piece of tissue is the same size, more accurate and reliable could be obtained. Human error when collecting and construe the data in the experiment could have caused considerable variations in the results recorded.During the radioligand binding experiment complications arose due to contamination, with various external factors such as temperature and buffer strength affecting the results.

South African Natural Resources Economics Essay

s issueh vitamin Eward African Natural Resources Economics EssayThe sec African natural resources mine industry is long recognized as the most primal sector and in spite of the fact that it is the ordinal largest provider to total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at presently and is electrostatic regarded as a foundation stone of the thrift and the main(prenominal) employer.The mining industry is a swell up-established and resourceful sector of southeast Africas economy and has a high degree of expert expertise as well as the ability to assemble capital for new development.The immensity of the know mineral resources and reserves were revealed by means of conservative exploration methods, still significant potential is expected for the u intimatelything of other top- nonch deposits in argonas still to be thoroughly explored with contemporary exploration technology. entropy Africa is a sensationing producer and supplier of a range of minerals and produces approximately 53 d ifferent minerals from 1548 mines and quarries as well as exports to approximately 80 countries.As a head mining country, federation Africas strengths comprise a soaring level of technical expertise and research and development activities. reciprocal ohm Africas Mineral Resources can be classified intoPrecious Metals and Minerals brawniness MineralsNon- Ferrous Metals and MineralsFerrous Metals and MineralsIndustrial Minerals preciously METALS MINERALS doorSouth Africa is the humans largest producer of platinum-group metals (PGMs) and the fifth largest producer of coin. The country is to a fault a study producer of diamonds, epoch silver is produced as a by- result from gold, lead-atomic number 30, copper and PGM mines.1.1 DIAMONDSouth Africas 2009 diamond mathematical product was slight than half of 2008 product, f aloneing by 52.3 percent to 6.1 Mat. Diamonds sourced from kimberlitic contributed 91.8 percent to the countrys total production, while all tolduvial and mari ne diamonds contributed 4.8 and 3.4 percent, respectively.Production from De Beers Consolidated Mines dominated the countrys total proceeds with a contribution of approximately 85 percent, despite a 49 percent reduction in carats recovered in 2009.1.2 GOLDSouth Africas gold industry has been the trader focus of black frugal empowerment, resulting in a changing ownership structure.With the increase in the price of gold and the worldwide economic slowdown, investment in gold has increased, with investors seeking honorable haven investments. Demand for gold overly increased in 2009, curiously from India and China.1.3 PLATINUM GROUP METALSThe PGMs include platinum, palladium, gold, rhodium, osmium, rhenium, iridium and ruthenium. Platinum, palladium and rhodium atomic number 18 produced in substantial quantities. South Africa is the largest producer of platinum in the world and holds a large percentage of globular reserves.1.4 SILVERSilver is produced in South Africa as a by-pro duct of gold, lead-zinc, copper and PGM mines. South Africa does not have a primary silver mine and the metal is solely produced as a by-product of other minerals, most notably gold.2. zippo MINERALSINTRODUCTIONSouth Africa is well endowed with both coal and atomic number 92 reserves and is ranked amongst the top ten in the world, but has relatively small known reserves of oil and gas.South Africa is the 7th and eleventh largest world producer of coal and uranium, respectively.2.1 COAL gibe to the 2010 BP Statistical Energy Survey, South Africa had end 2009 coal reserves of 30408 million tones, 3.68% of the world total. South Africa has Africas only significant coal reserves.2.2 OIL NATURAL GAS fit in to the 2012 BP Statistical Energy Survey, South Africa consumed an average of 547.25 thousand barrels a day of oil in 2011, 0.64% of the world total.South Africa is the leading economic power in Africa as well as a blusher player in the African oil industry.2.3 URANIUMThe AngloGol d Ashanti mine is the major producer of uranium as a by-product of gold in South Africa from three mines, namely, Great Noligwa, Moab Khotsong and Kopanang. Nuclear Fuel Corporation (Nucor) exports all uranium oxide (U3O8), which is processed through calcinations of uranium slurry.3. NON-FERROUS METALS AND MINERALSINTRODUCTIONSouth Africas non-ferrous minerals resources be rated amongst the top 10 countries in the world. The country is well endowed with te and zirconium resources, which is economically mineralized in heavy mineral sands in Kwan-Zulu Natal as well as the Eastern and Western Cape.3.1 BAUXITESouth Africa does not mine any bauxite. It does, however, have an active aluminum smelting industry.The Hillside aluminum smelter sited in Richards Bay is one of the worlds most superior and cost-effective AP30 smelters and produces T-bars and primary aluminum ingots.3.2 ANTIMONYSouth Africa is a major global antimony producer, producing 3 000 t in 2009. The largest antimony prod ucer in South Africa is Consolidated Murchison, a subsidiary of Metorex Limited.3.3 NICKEL COBALT around of South Africas nickel and cobalt be produced as by product of platinum mining activities on the Bushed Igneous Complex.Nickel mining is done by means of an underground shaft and overly by render-pit mining. Oxidized chromatist is also mined as division of the pre-strip of the future open pits.3.4 COPPERParabola, South Africas leading copper producer, is located 360km north east of Pretoria, close to the Kruger National Park. Parabola is also a major source of vermiculite and baddeleyite (zirconium oxide).The absolute majority shargonholders in Parabola Mining Co. are Rio Tinto plc (57.7%) and Anglo-American.3.5 ZINC LEADExira owns Zinced, an electrolytic zinc refinery with the capability to produce 110ktpa of zinc and 170 kappa of sulphuric acid.The refinery, located 50 km east of Johannesburg in Springs, processes some 240ktpa of zinc concentrate.3.6 TITANIUM zirconi umSouth Africa is Africas main producer, with 30% of world production, second after Australia. Limonite, retiled and leucoxene are the primary ore minerals of titanium and are usually found in localized beach placer deposits, hence the term Heavy Mineral Sands.Anglo American and BHP Billiton are the main producers from their operation on both coasts of South Africa.4. FERROUS METALS AND MINERALSINTRODUCTIONSouth Africa is the worlds largest producer of chromium and vanadium ores and a leading supplier of their alloys. It is also a major producer of bid and manganese ores, an important supplier of manganese alloys and a small producer of ferrosilicon and silicon metal.4.1 chromiumAfrican chrome is produced from the Bushed Complex in South Africa, which has 80% of global reserves and produces approximately 50% of global chromate. Nearly all of Zimbabwes chrome production is sourced from the Great Dyke and consumed for local ferrochrome plants.4.2 IRON OREAccording to the USGS, South Africa produced 53 million metric scads of iron ore in 2009, making it the worlds 7th largest producer. It also estimated, in 2009, that South Africa has 1000 million tons of crude ore reserves and 650 million metric tons of iron content reserves.4.3 MANGANESESouth Africa currently accounts for about 75% of the worlds set manganese resources. These mostly occur near Hoatzin in the Yankee Cape Province. According to the USGS, reserves were estimated at 15 billion tons in 2011. South Africa was the worlds largest producer of manganese in 2011, producing 3.4 million tons.4.4 quintupletPure vanadium (V) is a bright white metal, and is soft and ductile. It is has a good corrosion resistance to a variety of alkalis and acids, but oxidizes quickly above 660 C. About 85% of vanadium is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive.5. INDUSTRIAL MINERALSINTRODUCTIONIndustrial minerals are generally high volume, low value commodities that will usually render minimum cost of underground exploitation since most occur near surface. As a result, most industrial minerals require less obscure mining techniques and, therefore, present opportunities for small-scale mining development.SOUTH AFRICANcementumum INDUSTRYThe cement production processcementum is a semisynthetic grind that, when assorted with water and aggregates, produces concrete.The cement-making process can be shared into a few basic stepsMining limestoneProportioning and grinding limestone with other corrective raw materialsManufacturing clinker in a kiln at temperatures of 1,450CGrinding clinker and extra minerals to produce the powder known as cementDistributing cement to clientsSouthern Africa Cement Industry OverviewA resource-rich country, characterized by vigorous GDP growth and a flourishing construction market, South Africa has all the markings of a sensation story for cement producers.With numerous faculty extension projects being planned or recently concluded, South African cement companies are gearing up for a constant elaborateness of the cement market.ConsumptionSouth Africa has enjoyed a stable increase in its cement utilization in recent years and the 2004-2006 periods proved no exception. In 2004, conjugal cement demand stood at 10.69Mt, rising by 11.6 per cent to 11.934Mt the year after.The strongest regional growth in 2006 was recorded in the Western Cape which saw its cement market inflate by almost 20 per cent.Other markets to trace double-digit growth figures were Mpumalanga (16.8 per cent), Kwazulu-Natal (14.7 per cent), Gauteng (13.4 per cent) and Free articulate (10.5 per cent).Market deceasementThe market shares of the four players on the basis of production capacity are as follows PPC cement leads the pack at 43%, followed by Afrisam at 24% and Lafarge at 23%. Cimpor accounts for 10% of boilersuit production capacity.When, or if, all the new pipeline capacity is in production, PPCs production market share is expected to decline to 41%, Afrisam to 19%, L afarge to 18%, while Sephaku will account for 10% of overall production capacity, and Conticem an anticipated 3%.Challenges faced by the Cement Industry sailplaning fuel prices and deceitful road and railway facilities facade a drab difficulty when it comes to the transport of cement.Mounting electricity and raw material costs are also totaling to production costs.Skills deficiency Worldwide antagonism for skills. well-disposed infrastructure besieged to get by with growth.Equipment and civil contract lead times increasing.Resistance in SA to make use of of kilns to set out wasteLooking to the future of the cement sector in SASouth Africa is in the process of restructuring its future. Structural improvements are taking place in its economy, infrastructure improvements have enlarged the nations economic capacity and will land up, not obstruct future economic growth.A key move towards opening the construction industry to increasing opportunities is the Department of Housings invitat ion in March 2010, to invite suppliers of substitute building methods to team up later(prenominal) this year.The Major Cement Producing Players in South Africa1. PRETORIA PORTLAND CEMENT PPC is the principal supplier of cement in southern Africa through eight cement manufacturing facilities and three milling depots in South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe that can produce around eight million tons of cement products each year.2. LAFARGE CEMENT ZIMBABWE Lafarge Cement Zimbabwe Limited, previously Circle Cement Limited, is a Zimbabwe-based cement manufacturer and also a distributor of cement and related products. Lafarge has a production capacity of 450,000 MT per year, 120,000 MT of which is exported.3. LAFARGE ZAMBIA Lafarge Cement Zambia manufactures and provides cement for its local market and also exports to bordering DRC and Burundi.

Occupations in Health and Social Care Essay

Occupations in health and hearty Cargon Essay1.1 Introduction in that respect are a variety of diametric occupations at heart the hospital and community, anyone involuntary to join the health and cordial sector should be aware of the divergent range of occupations. If employees cigarette offer good employ mightiness skills this volition then champion them to be boffo in their chosen occupations. Relevant qualifications and the willingness to train push in order to develop more appropriate skills including effective conversation skills, the ability to be given well in a team and exploitation own initiative this posterior help the employee to be suitable for the trading (Bach and Grant, 2009).There is a wide range of opportunities available where each individuals interest and ebullience raise progress. This report is aimed to describe the different types of occupations at heart wellness and fond portion out. One of the areas of focus will be the typical peckin g order within health and mixer safeguard and the important places and responsibilities it plays for professionals within this field of work. both(prenominal) of the in operateation in this report will be provided in diagrams explaining the post and social organization of management and the importance of hierarchy within health and kindly misgiving.1.2 Range of Occupations in wellness and loving Care and CareersHealthCare is outlined as the treatment, keepion and management of malady and the safeguard of mental illness and physical wellbeing through the services accessible through the affiliate and medical professions. Social care is the service concourse get overdue to poverty, illness, old age and disability from social services (Brotherton and Parker 2011).The health and social care Act (2012) sets out specific obligations for the health system and its descent to work together. This act clearly states that it gives a duty to NHS, England, clinical equip groups and health and wellbeing boards to make it easier for health and social services to work together.Health is provided in various settings which consist of physicians, offices, patient fundaments, outpatient departments, clinics, acute care hospitals, specialist hospitals, community health centres, long term care facilities and schools (Smith 2000).There are many an(prenominal) health occupations in the health and social care .Health care professionals are defined by possessions of eligibility, membership for practice, code of ethics and cleverness (Smith 2000). Research into various careers demonstrate particular specialised roles and responsibility. Some of the occupations in the health and social care are social workers who work for a range of governing bodys,but primarily in local authorities, independent memorial tablets and charities, in increment work for the NHSin hospitals, mental health trusts and other community-based settings. Social workers act as an adviser, advocate, counsellor and listener. Social workers work with, the elderly, quite a little with education and physical disabilities, youthfulness offenders, people with mental health conditions, school non-attenders drug and alcohol abusers and homeless person people. Their role is to conduct interviews with service users and their families to assess and review their situation and lift packages of support to enable service users to lead the fullest lives possibleSome of the occupations in the health and social care are Podiatrists who do a great chew over of pity for patients and offering professional advice on how to prevent foot problems. Podiatrist can identify and treat variety of disorders of the foot and lower lib. Many people who are in danger of amputation, such as those suffering from arthritis or diabetes are noted by podiatrists. There are dietetics who encourage wakeless eating styles and give guidance and change specific diets for people (Smith, 2000).The largest champion health care profession is nursing. Healthcare assistants work along altogether health professionals. Nurses can start as assistant haves. For someone to be able to be Registered Nurse (RN) must stick out nursing breeding which affects clinical practise, administration, education, research consultation and management (Smith, 2000).The nurses start on call up 5 on the NHS hierarchy (NHS, 2014) .Through continuous specific education of skills and fellowship professional nurses can develop higher in the hierarchy social organisation within the profession.. Nurses also have the opportunity to develop further and run their knowledge and skills to become more specialised, for example providing care for patients with mental illness, learning disability or midwifery focusing on specialised prenatal care. Nurses do a great job communicating effectively amidst doctors and patients as well as caring for the patients, following the doctors instructions (Sullivan, E, and Decker, P. 20 05) .Other duties include ensuring that medical records are kept securely (Data defense Act, 1998).The nurses maintain the hospital standards by checking wards areas and ensure hygienic standards are met (Health and preventive at Work Act 1974). According to NMC (2004) registered nurses, midwifery or health visitor, are all accountable for their practice.Prospects, 2014, .NHS, 2014, and Career Frameworks, 2014.1.3 NHS hierarchy in Health and Social CareA social hierarchy is a vertically stratified relationship between two or more people or groups in which those at a upper take aims of the hierarchy have more power and status than those at junior stages of hierarchy (Magee and Galinsky, 2008) Those at upper levels have greater power to make decisions and greater ability to enforce rules than those at lower class. Although those at higher level accrue the most power the lower level individuals often demonstrate world-shattering support for hierarchies. The NHS is a huge organisa tion with many graded structures. The many layers of management are aimed to ensure that tasks are being done only and correctly .Hierarchy is very important to the challenge of improving the health care for people and the ways in which healthcare is provided. Everyone is clear about their job description and who they are managed by and who they are managing. Following relevant intent in expanding knowledge and skills at that place are opportunities to be promoted to jobs at major(postnominal) level. There are 9 bands in the NHS ranging from 9 as the highest hierarchy and the highest salaried down to 1 where professionals begin their career. If the hierarchy is effective as it is everything is in place there is no misunderstandings someone is answerable. A hierarchic structure clearly defines each employees role within the organisation laid down in their contract. Through continuous specific training of skills and knowledge professionals can develop higher in the hierarchy st ructure within the profession. Large organisations have many levels of hierarchies compared to small organisations. Below there is a diagram of the NHS illustrating hierarchies in Allied professionhttp//www.skillsforhealth.org.uk/career-framework/?sec=cfHierarchies can be very different in different organisations.There can be advantages and also some disadvantages in a big organisations.There are several levels of hierarchy in NHS who monitor specific areas and who have a duty to communicate with different boards and departments. There is possibly the problem of to a fault many people working in too many different levels. Another factor could be the organisation is too large. Within a social care setting for example a Residential home management teams organising the social care are not many. The hierarchy do not consist of too many levels as the number of employees that exists is relatively low. The head nurse can be nurse on the cornerstone as well as the manager. Small organisa tions may successes in observe their business more effectively with better methods of communicating. In small groups , hierarchical differentiation among the group members improves task especially on task that involve interdependence (Ronay, et al . 2012) However in a small organisation there can be stress because one person will be doing a lot of things for example a head nurse can also be the manager and work on the floor.1.4 vastness of Roles and Responsibilities of Hierarchy in Health and Social CareHierarchy plays a crucial role in health care system, it is a form of human social organisation and it offers structure to the organisation. It is important to work as a team in a hierarchy because everyone in the hierarchy has a role and is creditworthy according to their contract with the employer.Hierachy roles involve leading, tyrannical and organising other various functions within the health care system. For the hierarchy to accomplish efficiently the goals and aims of the organisation it should be accountable and responsible (Barr and Dowding 2012). The role and responsibility of the hierarchy is to ensure that tasks are being done but and correctly and prioritise workload within the team. The Hierarchy has responsibilities to encourage staff to perform well as management team will be accountable if anything goes wrong. The hierarchy maintains work schedule, training of staff, responsibility on pecuniary budget and ensuring that the staff perform to the standard set by the insurance within the organisation. The hierarchy as well as being responsible for legal issues at the hospital ensure that they perform to the standards set by hospital policy and other professional guidelines (Taylor and Thornton ,1995 ). In addition the hierarchy deal with complaints from both patients and relatives and where necessary bring about changes or improvements to prevent further complains.1.5 ConclusionThere are a range of occupations within the Health and social setting that is in hospitals and also in the community. If employees can offer good employability skills this will then help them to be successful in their chosen occupations .The hierarchy is different from different organisations.There are 9 bands in the NHS hierarchy ranging the lowest band 1 lowest paid to band 9 the highest hierarchy and highest paid. The NHS has many hierarches from lower to senior level covering a wide range of skills, knowledge and experience. There is eer chance to expand further and go up the hierarchy if determined. Hierarchy maintains work schedule, training of staff, responsibility on financial budget and ensuring that the staff perform to the standard set by the policy within the organization.ReferencesBach,S. and Grant, A.(2009) communication and Interpersonal Skills for Nurses.(Transforming Nursing Practice) Exeter Learning Matters.Barr,J. and Dowding ,L.(2012) Leadership in Health Care 2nd edn SAGE PublicationsBrotherton, G.and Parker, S. (2011) Y our Foundation in Health and Social Care. London Sage PublicationsDepartment of Health Professions (2009) Confidentiality NHS Code of Practice London, dohHealth and Safety Executive (1974) Health and Safety in the body of work Act 1974 www.hse.gov.uk accessed 31/10/14NMC (2004) Code of Professional transport Standards for Conduct Performance and Ethics. London, Nursing midwifery Council.NMC. (2009) The Code Standards of Conduct, Nursing and Midwifery Council Tilley, S and Watson R. (2004), Accountability in nursing and midwifery 2nd ed. Blackwell create OxfordMagee, J.C., and Galinsky, A.D. (2008).Academy of Management AnnalsJournalSullivan, E, and Decker, P. (2005) Effective Leadership and Management in Nursing 8th edn Pearson/Prentice HallTaylor,G. and Thornton ,C.(1995) Managing People Directory of Social smorgasbord Radius works. London.Ronay, R., Greenaway, K.,Anicich, E,M., and Galinsky,A. D. (2012) Psychological ScienceSmith, J. (2000) Health Management Information Sys tems program library of Congress Open University Press BuckinghamNHS Careers (2014). on tap(predicate) from http//www.nhscareers.nhs.uk/ Accessed 31/10/2014Health and Social Care Act 2012. Available from http//www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2012/7/enacted Accessed 29/11/2014Careers in the allied health professions NHS Careers. Available from http//www.nhscareers.nhs.uk/explore-by-career/allied-health-professions/careers-in-the-allied-health-professions/ Accessed 31/10/2014Social worker NHS Careers. Available from http//www.nhscareers.nhs.uk/explore-by-career/wider-healthcare-team/careers-in-the-wider-healthcare-team/clinical-support-staff/social-worker/ Accessed 29/11/2014Social worker line of business description Prospects.ac.uk. Available from http//www.prospects.ac.uk/social_worker_job_description.htm Accessed 29/11/2014Career Framework interactive Resource Career Frameworks Administration, business support and management of health services. Available from http//www.skillsf orhealth.org.uk/career-framework/?sec=cfid=3 Accessed 29/11/2014 BBC(2014).Policy at a glancehttp//news,bbc.co.uk politics2010/8677088,stm accessed 10/03/14

Analysis of To His Coy Mistress by Andrew Marvell Essay -- To His Coy

Andrew Marvells To His coy Mistress is in my opinion an excellent song about a subject matter we can all understand and most of us can relate to a love just beyond reach. This is the primary election reason I believe it is most suited to be in a college textbook. One of the hardest things to accomplish in a poem indite for uninterested college students is making it understandable and enjoyable by the audience, but this poem does it very well. In doing so, however, it also includes several important elements of poetic lyric poem that will educate the reader while at the same prison term keeping him or her interested.The initial paragraph lures the reader into believing that this is a talented lovers poem written to woo a woman with whom he is in love. The steady string of compliments profit together very well and leave a warm and happy image of the pairs relationship. The imagery is wonderful as well, as in this example My vegetable love should grow / Vaster than empires, and more irksome (Marvell 11-2). This sentence inspires a mental picture of a sweeping earth and all the vastness th...

San Francisco and Influenza :: Journalism Spanish Flu Health Essays

San Francisco and the Spanish FluSAN FRANCISCO--No one advise deny the amount of patriotism San Franciscans have for their country especi on the wholey during the great state of war. Rallying, Parading, and marching down the streets of San Francisco ar where these civilians choose to be, whether they like conducting gauze bandage masks or not. Such undertakings, however, are exactly the kinds of activities a community seek to protect itself from Spanish Influenza should definitely avoid. With the commotion of World War I legion(predicate) San Franciscans fail to notice the rapid rate at which people are falling victim to the epidemic influenza. Origins at this succession are not specifically known although it was dubbed the name, Spanish Flu, for its early sadness and large mortality rates in Spain. The influenza, also known as the Spanish Flu, is affecting roughly all of northern California economically and socially whether San Franciscans notice it or not. Several s chools, churches, and buildings are closed imputable to preventive orders by authorities. Insurance companies and the Government are spiraling downwardly financially as they become responsible for the victims of this deadly influenza. Moreover, ordinances mandated the wearing of gauze masks in public places. Such laws are outraging civilians as well as important politicians. Individuals against the mandatory wearing of gauze masks appealed the law while others chose to be arrested rather than wear the masks. Governor Stephens attempted to set an example for all Californians by wearing a gauze mask to a clash at the Capitol. Even state senators are ordered to wear masks when attendance meetings in the senate. On January 12, the public health committee of the Alameda County Medical golf-club suggested and presented codes of conduct to combat the influenza epidemic. The Medical Society advise civilians to wear gauze masks when congregating with two or more people. Military reservations and forts are being quarantined to halt the spread of the influenza epidemic. Agreements cannot be do between local anaesthetic authorities and civilians nor can they accept the safety precautions local authorities are trying to apply. While newspapers such as The San Francisco explanation have explosive front page headlines of the war, the deadly influenza epidemic seems miniscule in comparison. There are far too many articles on insignificant stories of divorces, crimes, and debutantes of San Francisco. Of what was actually mentioned in between the pages of war conference were the repeals over the laws requiring civilians to wear gauze masks.

Free College Admissions Essays: Geography :: College Admissions Essays

Geography   The various nature of Geography has always attracted me to the subject, and the bridge it forms between the Arts and the Sciences reflects umpteen of my raises. I am greatly enjoying the work which I am doing for the A level syllabus, on both the human and physical sides of the course, and would like to hold back to study in both these fields. Geography gives the opportunity to accumulate a priceless range of skills, and I particularly enjoy the variety of analytical, numerical, bibliographic and research skills which I am called upon to use. The study of Geography will enable me to consider complex interactions between the human and physical environments, and the scope for serviceable research within the subject is very appealing. I sport accompanied a number of Geographical Association lectures organised by my topical anesthetic branch, and look forward to taking responsibility for my own work in response to such stimulus.   My interest in Geography is reflected in my filling of supporting A level subjects. I keep back found them very helpful in encourageing my understanding of issues such as ecology and the touch of raw data, where subjects overlap. The study of French has also helped me to appreciate European issues whilst maintaining a language which I enjoy. I plan to take a intermission Year with the G.A.P. Organisation, to work as a support teacher in a developing nation. This, I believe, will be a valuable experience, and allow me to gain some first hand case studies in social, spatial and physical geography, which may provide a foundation for further study. I am very interested in the developing world, and have actively supported Christian Aid campaigns, as well as speaking on the Economic and Environment Committee at a Model United Nations Conference. Whilst completing the Bronze and Silver Duke of Edinburgh Awards, I have been able to improve my cartographic skills, and observe a variety of landscapes, which has ad ded to my interest in physical geography. Taking part in the Tall Ships stimulate on an S.T.A schooner for my Gold Residential Award has also helped me to appreciate the protect of team work and perseverance.

A Guide to MADD Sites Essay -- Drunk Driving Essays

A Guide to MADD Sites In 2001, more than half a jillion people were injured in cut ines where police reported that alcohol was ease up an average of whizz person injured approximately every 2 minutes (Blincoe qtd. in MADD main). In 2002, an estimated 17,419 people died in alcohol link up traffic crashesan average of one every 30 minutes. These deaths constitute 41 percent of the 42,815 total traffic fatalities in America (NHTSA qtd. in MADD main). From these statistics, it is clear to see that drunkard driving is a serious issue that harms thousands of innocent American citizens. Although there are many organizations that address the issue of drinking and driving, MADD, Mothers Against Drunk Driving, is the to the highest degree successful, as a group of citizens, in fulfilling their mission. It is ironic that the MADD organization was founded because of one persons anger. Reports show that in 1979, Cindi Lamb and her five and a half old month daught er, Laura, were in a car cam stroke involving a drunk number one wood. Their car was hit head on by a repeat drunk driving offender who was traveling at 120 miles per hour. As a result, Laura became one of the worlds youngest quadriplegics. This caseful prompted Lamb to start a war against drunk driving in her home state of Maryland (Lord qtd. in MADD main). On the west coast, slight than a year later, 13-year-old Cari Lightner was killed by a drunk driver. According the article, the driver was released on bail for a hit-and-run drunk driving crash two days anterior. In addition to this offense, the driver had two prior drunk driving convictions with a third offense for reckless accident. disdain all of these charges, he was still driving around with a sound ... ...ly up to the individual.Works CitedBlincoe, Seay et al. Stats & Resources- General Statistics. (2002). 4 Oct. 2003 .Lord, Janice. Really MADD Looking defend at 20 Years. DRIVEN Magazine. 27 Sept. 2003. Spring 2002 . Mothers Against Drunk Driving- Canada Chapter. MADD blank space Page. (2003). 27 Sept. 2003 .Mothers Against Drunk Driving-Official Site. MADD domicil Page. (2003). 27 Sept. 2003 .Mothers Against Drunk Driving- Orange County Chapter. MADD Home Page. (2003). 27 Sept. 2003 .National Highway and Traffic Administration. Stats & Resources- General Statistics. (2003) 3 Oct. 2003 .

Self-Promotion and Celebrity Endorsements of Healthy Lifestyles Essay

Self-Promotion and Celebrity Endorsements of Healthy LifestylesIn his book Celebrity and Power Fame in Contemporary Culture, P. David Marshall states The pie-eyed scrutiny that is given to celebrities is to accentuate the possibility and potential for individuals to shape themselves unchained by the constraints of a hierarchical society (246). Therefore, celebrities are seen as usage models for a life style that might never be fully getatable by the average person, but can be imitated. What is ironic therefore is that following a celebrity-endorsed lifestyle does non create individuality, but reduces it. spell celebrities endorse products, they also appear in advertisements which promote a brawny lifestyle where through the abstinence from vices such as smoking and drinking, to the white plague of hale products such as milk, or the changing of habits to create a to a greater extent environmentally friendly world. While these advertisements may have baronial intentions an e xamination of the linguistic messages, iconic messages, and the target audiences, shows that the celebrities who appear in advertisements promoting healthy lifestyle choices are also promoting their own creative projects at the same(p) time. An interesting example of how celebrities promote themselves while promoting a healthy lifestyle is seen in an advertisement sponsored by Budweiser beer and featuring the band *NSYNC. Appearing in the may 14, 2001 issue of People Magazine, the ad encourages parents to talk to their children about underage drinking. If parents blabber the website and read about the program, they can enter to win a family propel to Washington D.C. to see the group in concert. The linguistic messages lop to not only promote the cause, but the band and the beer.... ...sement does achieve some take of cross promotion because of the audience it is reaching. In conclusion it is evident that whether clear or less obvious, there is always some element of cross-pro motion in advertisements featuring celebrities. Although the celebrities may genuinely care about the causes which they are promoting it is obvious that their in truth presence in the advertisement draws attention to themselves and allows the reader to make connections to any(prenominal) creative projects they are working on at the moment. The advertisements work in part because the celebrities featured are those in the public eye at the time of publishing and that they are easily recognizable. The linguistic message, the iconic messages (both coded and non-coded) work together along with a strategic targeting of similar audiences to promote more that one thing in the advertisement.

Should We Pay Farmers Not to Grow Crops? Essay -- Argumentative Agricu

Should We Pay Farmers Not to Grow Crops?The saving shyness Program (CRP) was established under the Conservation Title of the 1985 nutrient Security Act and is still in place today. This chopine which intend to assist with possible environmental problems is peerless that is beneficial to the turners and our countrys environment and hence should stay in effect. However, it should be examined how this program is being conducted to ensure that the airplane pilot objectives are being met today and with maximum efficiency. When the CRP was established in 1985 as a voluntary acreage retirement program, there were seven tell objectives that were introduced as well. The stated objectives of the CRP are to (a) reduce body of water and wind erosion, (b) cheer our long-term capability to produce feed and fiber, (c) reduce sedimentation, (d) improve water quality, (e) create better habitat for fish and wildlife through improved food and cover, (f) curb production of surplus commoditie s, and (g) provide needed income support for farmers (Boggess and Reichelderfer 111). The program also was subject to the constraints of having a minimum of 5 million realm enrolled by 1986 and at least 10 million acres by 1989. It was also specified that no more than 25% of any one specific countys cropland can be enrolled in the program at the identical time. (Boggess and Reichelderfer 111). In order to be qualified for the program owners and operators who currently farm highly erodible land may apply for program funding. According to Dana Hoag and herbaceous plant Holloway, highly erodible land is defined as having an erodibility index greater than or compare to 8 (185). The main benefits of this program include the extra income for the farmers and the positive env... ... and Katherine Reichelderfer. ?Government purpose Making and Program Performance The Case of the Conservation Reserve Program.? American journal of Agricultural Economics. February 1988. 111-121. Buchholtz, Shawn, and Michael J. Roberts. ?Slippage in the Conservation Reserve Program or Spurious Correlation? A Comment.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. February 2005. 244-250. Hoag, Dana L., and Herb A. Holloway. ?Farm Production Decisions Under Cross and Conservation Compliance.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. February 1991. 184-193. Smith, Rodney B.W. ?The Conservation Reserve Program as a Least-Cost vote out Retirement Mechanism.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. April 2005. 52-67. Wu, Jun Jie. ?Slippage Effects of the Conservation Reserve Program.? American Journal of Agricultural Economics. November 2000. 979-992.